Summer 2006

Ensuring success in reading requires different levels of effort for different segments of the population (Snow, Burns, & , 1998). If a child performs below grade level targets on a screening or progress monitoring measure, they are already substantially behind in required development. To achieve the grade level standard by the end of the year, these students must learn critical skills faster than their grade level classmates. The most direct way to increase learning rate is by increasing the number of positive or successful instructional interactions per school day (Torgesen, 2006).

The Three-Tiered Reading Model is a prevention model that provides an instructional framework for delivering assessment-driven, differentiated instruction to all students, including students at risk for and with reading difficulties. Reading instruction focuses on the use of a core curriculum that is grounded in scientifically-based reading research, supplemental materials, and intervention reading programs. The three-tiered model also focuses on identifying struggling students and providing additional instructional and intervention support that is needed.

Tier 1

• Core reading instruction provided to all students.
• Progress monitoring. Is the student making progress? If not, move to Tier 2 intervention.
• Block of time for reading instruction

Tier 2

• Additional instructional time beyond that provided through core reading instruction
• Uses supplemental instructional materials to enhance Tier 1 instruction
• Increase the intensity of instruction
• Almost always given in small groups
• Must be precisely targeted at the right level on student's most critical learning needs
• Must increase the explicitness of instruction
• Increase progress monitoring. Is the student making progress? If not, consideration of more intensive intervention at Tier 3.

Tier 3

• Student is not successful after Tier 1 and 2 instruction.
• Additional instructional time (for example 90 minute core block and two 30 minute small group or 1:1 sessions per day).
• Instruction is intensive, strategic, and specifically designed and customized for the student. Intervention is based on student needs and may be different for each student.
• Instruction is delivered in small group or 1:1.
• Increased progress monitoring.

Critical elements of effective interventions (Torgesen, 2006)  

Below are ways that instruction must be made more powerful for students at risk for reading difficulties. More powerful instruction involves:

• More instructional time
• Smaller instructional groups
• More precisely targeted at right level
• Clearer and more detailed explanations
• More systematic instructional sequences
• More extensive opportunities for guided practice
• More opportunities for error correction and feedback

Torgesen (2006) suggests the following as a comprehensive model for reading instruction in late elementary, middle, and high school.

1. Intensive reading classes for struggling readers, taught by highly qualified teachers
2. More effective instruction in content knowledge and understanding-made accessible for weaker readers
3. Content teachers provide instruction that helps students improve their skills in how to learn from reading-reading strategies
4. Ongoing formative assessments as well as end of year outcome assessments

References:

Snow, C., Burns, M., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Research Council. National Academy Press.

Torgesen, J. (2006) Interventions for Students with Reading Disabilities: Requirements at the School and Classroom Level. Presented at symposium titled "Overcoming Dyslexia" sponsored by the American International College, Springfield, Massachusetts, April, 2006. Retrieved on June 1, 2006 from http://www.fcrr.org/science/pptpresentations.htm.

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Response to Intervention: Fostering Positive Student Outcomes

-Written by Julie Berlin, Graduate Research Assistant

What is Response to Intervention (RtI)?

According to the Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services (BEESS, 2006), the response to intervention (RtI) model is defined as a "multi-tiered approach to providing services and interventions to students at increasing levels of intensity based on progress monitoring and data analysis." Using the tri-tier method, RtI functions as a problem-solving mechanism that is used to make crucial educational decisions about students' academic needs, including the determination of eligibility for exceptional education services. The idea behind the RtI model is to provide students with an appropriate support system that meets their needs based on valid and tangible data obtained through implementing interventions at various levels.

How does the multi-tier method work?

The multi-tiered component distinguishes RtI from other methods of intervention. Each tier is delineated by the level of intensity of services required and the personnel who are involved in the process. The tiers operate on a continuum so that students can move fluidly between tiers as determined by level of need and response to support received. Each tier requires the completion of a specific problem-solving process, wherein the problem is identified, analyzed, and the interventions are evaluated, to determine the effectiveness of the support given at that particular tier. Tier One provides basic support and is used primarilty to assess the student's current level of functioning. Students not responding to the level of services provided in Tier One may move to Tier Two, wherein progress is monitored with supplemental support. Tier Three mandates intensive special support and more targeted interventions. Those students failing to respond to Tier Three interventions may be considered for exceptional education services and eligible for an individual education plan (Graner, Faggella-Luby, & Fritschmann, 2005; BEESS, 2006).

What are the advantages of using the RtI model?

Some researchers claim that RtI is "the most promising method of alternate assessment" (Bradley, Danielson, & Doolittle, 2005). Recent research has suggested that the RtI model is a much-preferred alternative to the aptitude-achievement discrepancy model ("wait to fail" model) that is often used to identify students with learning disabilities (Bradley, Danielson, & Doolittle, 2005; Graner, Faggella-Luby, & Fritschmann, 2005). Research has also indicated RtI as an effective model for identifying and supporting students with specific reading disabilities. Because the RtI model allows for earlier identification, it is an effective strategy for instituting foundational literacy skills for children at risk for early reading difficulties (Vellutino, Scanlon, Small, & Fanuele, 2006). Thus, RtI is an ideal solution to helping students receive the services they need to be academically successful without a formal placement into a special education program. Other advantages of the RtI model include a reduction of inappropriate referrals, a reduction in bias and overidentification of the minority populations, and, most importantly, "increased accountability for student learning" (Graner, Faggella-Luby, & Fritschmann, 2005).

What are the drawbacks to using the RtI model?

While the Response to Intervention model gives the impression that it will be the "next big thing" in schools around the country, it is still a work-in-progress. There are still many unanswered questions in regard to standard protocols, responsibility for implementation and progress monitoring, teacher training and preparation, and ambiguous non-response criteria (Mastropieri & Scuggs, 2005). Another major issue relates to the use of RtI for eligibility determination. Some critics are concerned with the risk of systemic error when using RtI as an eligibility tool for students with learning disabilities. This would suggest that RtI in and of itself is not a sufficient tool to determine eligibility, but the information it can provide as to students’ levels of performance can and should be used in making such a determination. Undoubtedly, RtI remains a very attainable goal for the education system.

Implications for Teachers and Educators

Despite the obvious complications with the response to intervention model, it continues to be a very real prospect for school communities striving to improve the overall success of all students. It is important to consider the issues surrounding the shifting roles of the personnel involved in the RtI process. School communities want some indication as to the extent of the impact that shifting toward a response to intervention model will have upon teachers, administrators, special educators, Teachers and educators are at the orefront of the movement and are invaluable when it comes to eventual implementation. They are involved at every tier and are an integral part of providing support and progress monitoring. The problem, however, remains that at this time, the specific roles of teachers and other administrative personnel remain unclear (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2005). There is uncertainty about the roles of general education teachers' versus special education teachers' responsibilities at each tier. How to gauge "unresponsiveness" is also remains ambiguous. Collectively, research in this area has suggested that while RtI is a more advanced method of assessment and can yield enormously beneficial information, specifics such as "how" and "under what circumstances" have not been completely determined. But regardless of individual roles and responsibilities, "accountability for positive outcomes for students is the shared responsibility of all personnel" (BEESS, 2006).

Refereneces:

Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services. (2006, February). The response to intervention (RtI) model (Technical Assistance Paper Number FY 2006-8). Retrieved May 14, 2006, from the Florida Department of Education Website: http://www.firn.edu/doe/commhome/pdf/y2006-8.pdf.

Graner, P.S., Faggella-Luby, M.N., & Fritschmann, N.S. (2005). An overview of response to intervention: What practitioners ought to know. Topics in Language Disorders, 25(2), 93-105.

Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (2005). Feasibility and consequences of response to intervention: examination of the issues and scientific evidence as a model for the identification of individuals with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(6), 525-531.

Vellutino, F.R., Scanlon, D.M., Small, S., & Fanuele, D.P. (2006). Response to intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between children with and without reading disabilities: Evidence for the role of kindergarten and first-grade interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(2), 157-169.

 

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Intervention for Secondary Students: Five Critical Areas

In their new book, Creating Literacy-Rich Schools for Adolescents, Gay Ivey and Douglas Fisher (2006), discuss five critical areas to consider when developing, selecting, or revising interventions for struggling readers and writers at the secondary level.

Involvement of Expert Teachers

Teachers who are effective at reaching low-achieving readers spend more of their time working one-to-one or in small groups rather than with the whole class (Allington & Johnston, 2002; Taylor, Perason, Clark, & Walpole, 2000). Secondary students must read more and read better. It is the teacher who is in the position of making this happen. The teacher is the one who knows the student and can adjust instruction accordingly to meet the student's needs.

Comprehensive Approach to Reading and Writing

Many reading programs for secondary students work on specific deficiencies in basic skills. This instruction, more often than not, focuses on word-level and sound-level skills or on discrete comprehension skills. Programs that focus on singular aspects of the reading process are not effective. "Good interventions work simultaneously and make connections between all dimensions of reading and writing" (Ivey & Fisher, 2006, p. 77).

Engaging Students in Reading and Writing

Instruction in reading and writing must resemble reading and writing encountered in the real world. "For students who have experienced unsuccessful, painful literacy experiences, perhaps the worst thing that we can do is inundate them with difficult and lifeless reading and writing tasks" (Ivey & Fisher, 2006, p. 80). It is critical that teachers take into account individual interests and a wide variety of text when providing intervention to adolescents. Students who are eager to read and write, talk about what they are reading and writing, read and write real texts, come to class ready to begin and can't put down their book when the period is over are all signs of engaging instruction. Classrooms where students just get the work done, where talk is limited, where instruction is limited to brief or isolated lessons, and where real reading and writing do not exist will not produce the desired results.

Useful and Relevant Assessments

How many times have you heard the phrase, "Instruction guided by assessment"? This is vitally important when providing interventions to struggling adolescent learners. For progress to be sustained ongoing evaluations are needed. Based on these ongoing evaluations, instruction and materials must be adjusted to meet the individual needs of the student. There is a note of caution when using assessment to match students to text. Reading level attained through evaluations should not be the sole criterion for matching students to text. Prior knowledge and interest play an important part in text readability. Students who have strong experiences with a particular topic can often transcend their reading-level scores on informal tests (Ivey & Fisher, 2006).

Opportunities for Authentic Reading and Writing

Good readers read more than poor readers. Interventions should have at their core significant opportunities for real reading and writing. Evidence from research indicates a strong relationship between volume of reading and reading achievement (Allington, 2001). This leads the question, exactly how much time is needed? Allington recommends at a minimum one and one-half hours a day of in-school reading. This time does not include instruction, but students actually sitting down and reading text.

Ivey and Fisher (2006) pose an essential question about intervention-Do the intervention initiatives cause students to read more and to read better? If your school does not already have an intervention in place, you can use these guiding principles to develop a framework for intervention. If your school does have an intervention in place, you can use the guiding principles to evaluate your schools' efforts and make adjustments in your efforts.

References:

Allington, R. (2001). What really matters for struggling readers: Designing research-based programs. New York, NY: Longman.

Ivey, G., & Fisher, D. (2006). Creating literacy-rich schools for adolescents. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

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Resources

Reading Disabilities: What do we know from research?
A presentation provided by Dr. Jack Fletcher, Center for Academic and Reading Skills, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas-Houston.
http://www.utsystem.edu/everychild/Presentations/JFletcherPDF9-9-02.pdf

Preventing Reading Difficulties: A Three-Tiered Intervention Model
This project is funded by the US Department of Education, Office of Special Programs. It seeks to study the three-tiered intervention model as a way of preventing reading difficulties through effective early reading instruction and improving early and appropriate placements in special education.
http://www.texasreading.org/3tier/levels.asp

K-12 Comprehensive Research Based Reading Plans
View each District's K-12 Reading Plan. Within the K-12 Reading Plans you will find information on the core reading programs used, supplementary reading materials used, intervention materials used, and an assessment curriculum decision tree.
http://www.justreadflorida.com/Reading_Plans/

The Source: A Curriculum Guide for Reading Mentors
Whether reading mentors or classroom teachers, this curriculum is a great guide that includes an overview of current reading research and weekly lessons for intermediate struggling readers.
http://www.justreadflorida.com/docs/manual.pdf

Elementary Reading Block
In an elementary classroom, a minimum of 90 minutes of reading instruction - grounded in the principles of scientifically based reading research (SBRR) - is the most effective way to reach all students. This site provides various links to information on the 90-minute block.
http://www.justreadflorida.com/educators.asp

Secondary Assessment One Pager
A chart and summary of secondary assessment information.
http://www.justreadflorida.com/secondary/one-pager.asp

Primary and Secondary Diagnostic Instruments
A list of assessment instruments generated through a review conducted by Just Read, Florida! in consultation with the Florida Center for Reading Research.
http://www.justreadflorida.com/educators/PrimSecDiagChart.asp

FCRR Resources

Publications by FCRR Staff- there are many articles linked to this sight that deal with prevention of reading difficulties and intervention.
http://www.fcrr.org/science/publications.htm

Tier 3 Intervention Programs
Review programs that have gone through the review process at FCRR and found to contain sufficiently explicit and systematic instruction in critical reading skills to be helpful to struggling readers. These reports will be helpful to teachers, principals, and district personnel in their choice of materials for use in the classroom.
http://www.fcrr.org/pmrn/tier3/tier3interventions.htm

Additional reports:
Core Reading Programs - http://www.fcrr.org/FCRRReports/table.asp?rep=core
Supplemental and Intervention Programs - http://www.fcrr.org/FCRRReports/table.asp?rep=supp
Intervention and Remedial Programs for Students above 3rd Grade - http://www.fcrr.org/FCRRReports/table.asp?rep=412

The Response to Intervention (RtI) Model
A technical assistance paper produced to by the Florida Bureau of Exception Education and Student Services.
http://www.firn.edu/doe/bin00014/pdf/y2006-8.pdf

Now In Focus: IRA's RTI Resource Library
IRA's RTI Resource Library lists articles, book chapters, and brief reports for IRA members who wish to know how RTI might affect their students and classrooms. http://www.reading.org/resources/issues/focus_rti.html

National Research Center on Learning Disabilities
This site is a clearinghouse for evaluation, technical assistance, and activities related on Response to Intervention.
http://www.nrcld.org/research/rti.shtml

What Works Clearinghouse
The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) collects, screens, and identifies studies of effectiveness of educational interventions (programs, products, practices, and policies). http://www.whatworks.ed.gov/

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This month we highlight Sunshine State Reader books for grades 6-8.

Cryptid Hunters
By Roland Smith

From the publisher: After their parents are lost in an accident, thirteen-year-old twins Grace and Marty are whisked away to live with their uncle Wolfe. Uncle Wolfe is a veterinarian who has dedicated his life to finding cryptids -- mysterious creatures whose existence has never been proven.

Just as the twins and their uncle are getting to know each other, Wolfe finds out that his nemesis, Dr. Blackwood, is headed to a Congolese jungle to poach a dinosaur and her brood. Wolfe must mobilize his team immediately -- and his team does not include the twins. But Grace and Marty aren't easily left behind. With great daring, they literally drop into the Congo and now must play a high- stakes game in which the prize is a dinosaur egg, and the penalty, death.

The Boy Who Spoke Dog
By Clay Morgan

From the publisher: When Jack washes up on a mysterious island after a deadlystorm, there's no one to help him, except for the dogs. The sheepdogs on the island have eyes that speak right to Jack's heart, especially one dog-Moxie. But when angry beasts called fangos threaten to destroy the island, Jack and his companions must fight to save it. Once the battle ends, Jack is changed. Will he ever be the same again? Told from Jack's and Moxie's points of view, this adventure reveals how loyalty between boy and dog becomes a means for survival and hope.

Becoming Naomi Leon
By Pam Munoz Ryan

From the publisher: "I always thought that the biggest trial in my life was my name, Naomi Guadalupe Zamora Outlaw, but little did I know that it was the least of my problems, or that someday I would live up to it."

One evening, everything Naomi has known with Gram and her little brother begins to unravel. Naomi's mother wants to kidnap her. Gram is willing to go to the end of the earth to save Naomi, but will that be enough? A quiet life in Lemon Tree, California, becomes a runaway journey to find an estranged father in exotic Oaxaca, Mexico.

Chasing the Falconers: On the Run
By Gordon Korman

From the publisher: Aidan and Meg Falconer are their parents' only hope. The Falconers are facing life in prison -- unless Aidan and Meg can follow a trail of clues to prove their innocence. The problem? Right now they're trapped in a juvenile detention center. Until they escape one night -- and find themselves on the run, both from the authorities and from a sinister attacker who has his own reason to stop them. The Falconers must use their wits to make it across the country ... with plenty of tests along the way. Gordon Korman takes readers into FUGITIVE territory -- with thrilling results.

Gilda Joyce: Psychic Investigator
By Jennifer Allison

From the publisher: Ever since her father died, kooky Gilda Joyce has been working hard to sharpen her psychic skills. She's determined to communicate with spirits from the Other Side and become a crack investigator of spooky, twisted mysteries. After wrangling an invitation to visit San Francisco relatives, Gilda discovers just how much her dreary, tight-lipped uncle and his strange, delicate daughter need her help to uncover the terrible family secret that has a tortured ghost stalking their home.

May Bird and the Ever After
By Jodi Lynn Anderson

From the publisher: Most people aren't very comfortable in the woods, but the woods of Briery Swamp fit May Bird like a fuzzy mitten. There, she is safe from school and the taunts and teases of kids who don't understand her. Hidden in the trees, May is a warrior princess, and her cat, Somber Kitty, is her brave guardian.

Then May falls into the lake. When she crawls out, May finds herself in a world that most certainly does not feel like a fuzzy mitten. In fact it is a place few iving people have ever seen. Here, towns glow blue beneath zipping stars and the people -- people? -- walk through walls. Here the Book of the Dead holds the answers to everything in the universe. And here, if May is discovered, the horrifyingly evil Bo Cleevil will turn her into nothing. May Bird must get out. Fast!

Quake! Disaster in San Francisco, 1906
By Gail Longer Karwoski and Robert Papp (illustrator)

From the publisher: It is before daybreak on April 18, 1906. Jacob Kaufman slips out of the wooden boarding house where he lives with his immigrant father and little sister Rosie, his father's harsh words still ringing in his ears.

Suddenly the ground beneath his feet begins to rumble, buildings collapse and the street splits wide open as Jacob runs to find safety from a devastating earthquake. Fires engulf the city. He returns to find his father and sister… but there is nothing left of the building but a pile of sticks. Jacob and his dog join the throng of other people searching for shelter, food, fresh water and loved ones who are missing.

The Return of Gabriel
By John Armistead

In the summer of 1964, freedom workers come to a small Mississippi town to register blacks to vote. The quiet pace of the summer changes dramatically for Cooper and his friends Jubal, who is black, and Squirrel, who is Jewish. The only white member of Oak Grove Baptist Church, Cooper must decide how to react when his father makes him attend Ku Klux Klan meetings. His uncle Chicago helps guide him through the turbulent times. As the summer progresses, the pastor at the church learns of the Klan's plans in advance. He says the news comes from the Angel Gabriel. When Cooper discovers Gabriel's identity, he must decide what role he will play, and on which side.

The Revealers
By Doug Wilhelm

From the publisher: Parkland Middle School is a place the students call Darkland, because no one in it does much to stop the daily harassment of kids by other kids. Three bullied eventh graders use their smarts to get the better of their tormentors by starting an unofficial e-mail forum at school in which they publicize their experiences. Unexpectedly, lots of other kids come forward to confess their similar troubles, and it becomes clear that the problem at their school is bigger than anyone knew. The school principal wants to clamp down on the operation, which she does when the trio, in their zealousness for revenge, libel a fellow student in what turns out to have been a setup. Now a new plan of attack is needed . . .

True Sight
By David Stahler

From the publisher: On a frontier world is a colony called Harmony. Like everyone who lives there, Jacob is blind. In his debut novel, David Stahler Jr. vividly imagines a future where genetic engineering has taken a startling turn. On a distant planet, in a utopian community of the blind, one remarkable young man will discover just how much there is to see - if only he is willing to look.

Additional titles include

• Double Dutch by Sharon Draper
• Flush by Carl Hiaasen
• Lily's Ghost by Laura Ruby
• Overboard by Elizabeth Fama
• Peter and the Starcatchers by Dave Barry & Ridley Peterson

Check out the Sunshine State Young Readers Award program site for more information and classroom activities. http://www.firn.edu/doe/instmat/ssyrap.htm

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Summer Course Schedule

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FOR-PD Help Desk

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